Anti-microbial agents, such as antibiotics, have been effective tools in the treatment of infectious diseases during the last half-century. The systematic screening of natural product libraries from soil samples or marine environments has generated most of the classes of anti-bacterial agents used today (e.g., β-lactams, aminoglycosides, macrolides, and sulfonamides, to name a few). Additionally, these initial leads have, in many cases, been subsequently modified to produce second and third generation therapeutics with one or more of broadened anti-microbial activity, enhanced oral bioavailability, and improved toxicological and pharmacokinetic properties.
From the time that antibiotic therapy was first developed to the late 1980s, there was almost complete control over bacterial infections in developed countries. However, the emergence of resistant bacteria, especially during the late 1980s and early 1990s, is changing this situation (see, for example, Breithaupt, H., “The New Antibiotics: Can Novel Anti-bacterial Treatments Combat the Rising Tide of Drug-Resistant Infections?” Nature Biotechnology, (1997) 17: 1165). The increase in antibiotic resistant strains has been particularly common in major hospitals and care centers. The consequences of the increase in resistant strains include higher morbidity and mortality, longer patient hospitalization, and an increase in treatment costs. (B. Murray, New Engl. J. Med. 330:1229-1230 (1994)).
One major factor that is contributing to the increase in the number of resistance strains is the over-use and/or inappropriate administration of anti-microbials in the treatment arena. Newly acquired resistance is generally due to the relatively rapid mutation rate in bacteria. Another contributing factor is the ability of many microorganisms to exchange genetic material that confers resistance, e.g., exchanging of resistance plasmids (R plasmids) or resistance transposons.
For example, following years of use to treat various infections and diseases, penicillin resistance has become increasingly widespread in the microbial populations that were previously susceptible to the action of this drug. Some microorganisms produce β-lactamase, an enzyme that destroys the anti-microbial itself, while other microorganisms have undergone genetic changes that result in alterations to the cell receptors known as the penicillin-binding proteins, such that penicillin no longer effectively binds to the receptors. Other organisms have evolved in a manner that prevents the lysis of cells to which the drug has bound. The drug therefore inhibits the growth of the cell, but does not kill the cell. This appears to contribute to the relapse of disease following premature discontinuation of treatment, as some of the cells remain viable and may begin growing once the anti-microbial is removed from their environment.
The first report of penicillin resistance occurred in Australia in 1967. Since this initial report, increasing numbers of penicillin resistant strains have been reported worldwide. In addition, strains having resistance to numerous other antibiotics have also been reported, including strains that are resistant to chloramphenicol, erythromycin, tetracycline, clindamycin, rifampin, and sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim.
Microorganisms that are resistant to this wide range of drugs include opportunistic and virulent pathogens that were previously susceptible to antibiotic treatment. Resistant opportunistic pathogens are problematic for debilitated or immunocompromised patients, while the development of tolerance and resistance in virulent pathogens poses a significant threat to the ability to treat disease in all patients, compromised and non-compromised. Infections resulting from these naturally resistant opportunistic or virulent pathogens are becoming more difficult to treat with currently available antibiotics.
Clearly, in order to maintain the standard of public health we enjoy today, there is an urgent medical need for the identification of compounds having anti-microbial activity that can override existing mechanisms of resistance. Preferably, the anti-microbial compounds are active against a broad spectrum of microorganisms, while remaining non-toxic to human and other mammalian cells.